Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs), and by engaging in collective negotiation. Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs and perspectives and understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is how one thinks the disputants act, their behavior. Ultimately, a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.
The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. Furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution. Conflict resolution as an academic field is relatively new. George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, was the first university to offer a PhD program.
Video Conflict resolution
Theories and models
Dual concern model
The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes individuals' preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes or dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).
According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution. The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.
- Avoidance conflict style
- Characterized by joking, changing or avoiding the topic, or even denying that a problem exists, the conflict avoidance style is used when an individual has withdrawn in dealing with the other party, when one is uncomfortable with conflict, or due to cultural contexts. During conflict, these avoiders adopt a "wait and see" attitude, often allowing conflict to phase out on its own without any personal involvement. By neglecting to address high-conflict situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester out of control.
- Yielding conflict style
- In contrast, yielding, "accommodating", smoothing or suppression conflict styles are characterized by a high level of concern for others and a low level of concern for oneself. This passive pro-social approach emerges when individuals derive personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others and have a general concern for maintaining stable, positive social relationships. When faced with conflict, individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to harmonize into others' demands out of respect for the social relationship.
- Competitive conflict style
- The competitive, "fighting" or forcing conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness (i.e., concern for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for others). Groups consisting of competitive members generally enjoy seeking domination over others, and typically see conflict as a "win or lose" predicament. Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views by employing competitive power tactics (arguments, insults, accusations, violence, etc.) that foster feelings of intimidation.
- Conciliation conflict style
- The conciliation, "compromising", bargaining or negotiation conflict style is typical of individuals who possess an intermediate level of concern for both personal and others' outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so, anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions. By accepting some demands put forth by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage others to meet them halfway, thus promoting conflict resolution. This conflict style can be considered an extension of both "yielding" and "cooperative" strategies.
- Cooperation conflict style
- Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self behavior, the cooperation, integration, confrontation or problem-solving conflict style is typically used when an individual has elevated interests in their own outcomes as well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with others in an effort to find an amicable solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict. Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both highly assertive and highly empathetic. By seeing conflict as a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and resources into finding a "win-win" solution. According to the literature on conflict resolution, a cooperative conflict resolution style is recommended above all others. This resolution may be achieved by lowering the aggressors guard whilst raising the ego.
Maps Conflict resolution
Political conflict resolution in practice
Wars may occur between warring parties who contest an incompatibility. The nature of an incompatibility can be territorial or governmental, but a warring party must be a "government of a state or any opposition organisation or alliance of organisations that uses armed force to promote its position in the incompatibility in an intrastate or an interstate armed conflict". Wars can conclude with a peace agreement, which is a "formal agreement... which addresses the disputed incompatibility, either by settling all or part of it, or by clearly outlining a process for how... to regulate the incompatibility." A ceasefire is another form of agreement made by warring parties; unlike a peace agreement, it only "regulates the conflict behaviour of warring parties", and does not resolve the issue that brought the parties to war in the first place.
Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to avoid violence in solving such incompatibilities. Beginning in the last century, political theorists have been developing the theory of a global peace system that relies upon broad social and political measures to avoid war in the interest of achieving world peace. The Blue Peace approach developed by Strategic Foresight Group facilitates cooperation between countries over shared water resources, thus reducing the risk of war and enabling sustainable development.
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice, both in the U.S. and around the world. The escalating costs of conflict have increased use of third parties who may serve as a conflict specialists to resolve conflicts. In fact, relief and development organizations have added peace-building specialists to their teams. Many major international non-governmental organizations have seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained in conflict analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this expansion of the field has resulted in the need for conflict resolution practitioners to work in a variety of settings such as in businesses, court systems, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions serving throughout the world.
Culture-based
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field is highly sensitive to cultural practices. In Western cultural contexts, such as Canada and the United States, successful conflict resolution usually involves fostering communication among disputants, problem solving, and drafting agreements that meet underlying needs. In these situations, conflict resolvers often talk about finding a mutually satisfying ("win-win") solution for everyone involved.
In many non-Western cultural contexts, such as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also important to find "win-win" solutions; however, the routes taken to find them may be very different. In these contexts, direct communication between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived as very rude, making the conflict worse and delaying resolution. It can make sense to involve religious, tribal, or community leaders; communicate difficult truths through a third party; or make suggestions through stories. Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve because the expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there is much occasion for misunderstanding.
In animals
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-humans, including dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes, elephants, and primates. Aggression is more common among relatives and within a group than between groups. Instead of creating distance between the individuals, primates tend to be more intimate in the period after an aggressive incident. These intimacies consist of grooming and various forms of body contact. Stress responses, including increased heart rates, usually decrease after these reconciliatory signals. Different types of primates, as well as many other species who live in groups, display different types of conciliatory behaviour. Resolving conflicts that threaten the interaction between individuals in a group is necessary for survival, giving it a strong evolutionary value. These findings contradict previous existing theories about the general function of aggression, i.e. creating space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to be more the case in conflicts between groups than it is within groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore reconciliation in other animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in non-primates have consisted of anecdotal observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted hyenas, lions, bottlenose dolphins, dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, domestic dogs, and, very recently, in red-necked wallabies.
Education
Universities worldwide offer programs of study pertaining to conflict research, analysis, and practice. Conrad Grebel University College at the University of Waterloo has the oldest-running peace and conflict studies (PACS) program in Canada. PACS can be taken as an Honours, 4-year general, or 3-year general major, joint major, minor, and diploma. Grebel also offers an interdisciplinary Master of Peace and Conflict Studies professional program. The Cornell University ILR School houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution. It also offers dispute resolution concentrations for its MILR, JD/MILR, MPS, and MS/PhD graduate degree programs. At the graduate level, Eastern Mennonite University's Center for Justice and Peacebuilding offers a Master of Arts in Conflict Transformation, a dual Master of Divinity/MA in Conflict Transformation degree, and several graduate certificates. EMU also offers an accelerated 5-year BA in Peacebuilding and Development/MA in Conflict Transformation. Additional graduate programs are offered at Georgetown University, Johns Hopkins University, Creighton University, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, and Trinity College Dublin. George Mason University's School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution offers BA, BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Conflict Analysis and Resolution, as well as an undergraduate minor, graduate certificates, and joint degree programs. Nova Southeastern University also offers a PhD in Conflict Analysis & Resolution, which is offered in both online and on-campus formats.
Many students completing a doctoral program enter the field as researchers, theorists, analysts, policy makers and professors in higher education.
Pax Ludens, a non-profit based in the Netherlands, is an organization that puts together conflict resolution simulations set in an international relations scenario to help students learn about the intricacies of where conflict emerges in the world of international politics.
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy, with teachers and students both encouraged to learn about mechanisms that lead to aggressive action, and those that lead to peaceful resolution.
Tel Aviv University offers two graduate degree programs in the field of conflict resolution, including the English-language International Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, affording students to learn in a region which is the subject of much research on international conflict resolution.
The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace & Conflict Resolution, Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi is one of the first centers for peace and conflict resolution to be established at an Indian university. It offers a two-year full-time MA course in Conflict Analysis and Peace-Building, as well as a PhD in Conflict and Peace Studies.
Conflict management
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances--standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure--or social geometry--of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution. In order for actual conflict to occur, there should be an expression of exclusive patterns, and tell why the conflict was expressed the way it was. Conflict is not just about simple inaptness, but is often connected to a previous issue. The latter refers to resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict parties.
The role of culture is not always fully appreciated and must be taken into account. In a piece on "the ocean model of civilization", Prof Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that greater transcultural understanding is critical for global security because it diminishes 'hierarchies' and alienation, and avoids dehumanization of the 'Other'.
Counseling
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counseling may prove helpful. Although few organizations can afford to have professional counselors on the staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this function. Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being a good listener--something every manager should be.
Sometimes simply being able to express one's feelings to a concerned and understanding listener is enough to relieve frustration and make it possible for an individual to advance to a problem-solving frame of mind. The nondirective approach is one effective way for managers to deal with frustrated subordinates and coworkers.
There are other more direct and more diagnostic ways that could be used in appropriate circumstances. However, the great strength of the nondirective approach, however, lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness, and the fact that it deliberately avoids the manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting emotional problems, which would call for special psychological training. Listening to staff with sympathy and understanding is unlikely to escalate the problem, and is a widely used approach for helping people to cope with problems that interfere with their effectiveness in their place of work.
Steps to Conflict Resolution in the Classroom
Step 1: clarifying and focusing: problem ownership
Negative feelings such as annoyance, anger, and discomfort, can interfere with understanding exactly what is wrong in situations of dilemma and confrontation and how to set things right again. Gaining a bit of distance from the negative feelings is exactly what those moments need, especially on the part of the person with (presumably) the greatest maturity. Problem ownership, is defined as deciding who should take ownership of the behavior or conflict in the issue (Gordon, 2003).The main person that the root of the problem bothers is also known as the "owner" of the problem. Therefore, the owner of a problem needs to be the one who takes main responsibility for solving the issue. Identifying ownership makes a difference in how the behavior is dealt with as well as effectively solving the problem.
Step 2: Active Listening
Several strategies help with distinguishes who has a problem with a behavior and who takes ownership. One of those strategies is active listening. Active listening is attending carefully to all aspects of what a student says and attempting to understand or empathize as much as one can (Seifert & Sutton). Active listening consists of continually asking questions in order to test your understanding. It also requires giving encouragement to the student by letting them tell their story, and paraphrasing what the student says so you can form an unbiased conclusion. It is key not to move too quickly at solving the problem with just giving your advice, instructions, or scolding. Responding too soon with solutions can shut down the student's communication and leave you with inaccurate impressions of the source or nature of the problem (Seifert & Sutton).
Step 3: assertive discipline and I-messages
Once you have taken in the student's point of view, form your comments around how the student's behavior affects your role as the teacher. Your comments should be assertive, emphasize I-messages, and encourage the student to think about the affects of his/her behavior. They should not be passive, apologetic, hostile, or aggressive, but as a matter of fact. Such as, "Charlie, you are talking while I am talking." The comments should emphasize I-messages that focus on how the behavior is affecting the teacher's teaching and the other students learning (Seifert & Sutton). An example of this would be, "You are making it hard for me to focus on teaching this math lesson." Lastly, you should ask the student more open ended questions that make him or her think about the consequences of his or her behavior. Such as, "How do the other kids feel when you yell in the middle of class?" (Seifert & Sutton).
oThe comments should encourage the student to think about the effects of his or her actions on others--a strategy that in effect encourages the student to consider the ethical implications of the actions (Gibbs, 2003). Instead of simply saying: "When you cut in line ahead of the other kids, that was not fair to them", you can try saying, "How do you think the other kids feel when you cut in line ahead of them?"
Step 4: negotiation
Seifert and Sutton state that the first three steps describe desirable ways of handling these situations, that are also specific and last for only a short amount of time. These steps by themselves could potentially not be enough when conflicts continue to persist over extended periods of time. Often, it is better to negotiate a solution in these situations. Negotiating is defined as methodically deliberating selections and deciding on one if it is possible (Seifert & Sutton). Even though negotiation demands time and energy, it often demands less time or effort than persisting to cope with the problem. The results of negotiating can be valuable to everyone involved in the situation. Various experts on conflict resolution have suggested different ways to negotiate with students about problems that are continual(Seifert & Sutton). These theories differ in specifics, but typically are generally similar in steps as the ones we have previously discussed.
oDetermine what the problem is: involves active listening
oDiscuss/share possible solutions, consider their efficiency
oAttempt to reach a consensus: Total agreement on the subject will not always be possible, but it is important to set complete concurrence as your end goal.
oAssess the success of the decision: This is necessary for multiple reasons. Renegotiation might be necessary.
See also
Organizations
- Center for the Study of Genocide, Conflict Resolution, and Human Rights
- Conscience: Taxes for Peace not War is a London organisation that promotes peacebuilding as an alternative to military security
- Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research
- Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center
- Search for Common Ground is one of the world's largest non-government organisations dedicated to conflict resolution
- Seeds of Peace develops and empowers young leaders from regions of conflict to work towards peace through coexistence
- United Network of Young Peacebuilders (UNOY) is a global NGO and youth network dedicated to the role of youth in peacebuilding and conflict resolution
- University for Peace is a United Nations mandated organization and graduate school dedicated to conflict resolution and peace studies
- Uppsala Conflict Data Program is an academic data collection project that provides descriptions of political violence and conflict resolution
Footnotes
References
Works cited
- Augsburger, D. (1992). Conflict mediation across cultures. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster / John Knox Press.
- Bannon, I. & Paul Collier (Eds.). (2003). Natural resources and violent conflict: Options and actions. Washington, D.C: The World Bank.
- Ury, F. & Rodger Fisher. (1981). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. New York, NY: Penguin Group.
- Wilmot, W. & Jouyce Hocker. (2007). Interpersonal conflict. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
- Bercovitch, Jacob and Jackson, Richard. 2009. Conflict Resolution in the Twenty-first Century: Principles, Methods, and Approaches. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
- de Waal, Frans B. M. and Angeline van Roosmalen. 1979. Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 5: 55-66.
- de Waal, Frans B. M. 1989. Peacemaking Among Primates. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Judge, Peter G.; de Waal, Frans B.M. (1993). "Conflict avoidance among rhesus monkeys: coping with short-term crowding". Animal Behaviour. 46: 221-232. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1184.
- Veenema, Hans; et al. (1994). "Methodological improvements for the study of reconciliation". Behavioural Processes. 31: 29-38. doi:10.1016/0376-6357(94)90035-3.
- de Waal, Frans B. M. and Filippo Aureli. 1996. Consolation, reconciliation, and a possible cognitive difference between macaques and chimpanzees. Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (Eds. Anne E. Russon, Kim A. Bard, Sue Taylor Parker), Cambridge University Press, New York, NY: 80-110.
- Aureli, Filippo (1997). "Post-conflict anxiety in non-human primates: the mediating role of emotion in conflict resolution". Aggressive Behavior. 23: 315-328. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2337(1997)23:5<315::aid-ab2>3.0.co;2-h.
- Castles, Duncan L.; Whiten, Andrew (1998). "Post-conflict behaviour of wild olive baboons, I. Reconciliation, redirection, and consolation". Ethology. 104: 126-147. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00057.x.
- Aureli, Filippo and Frans B. M. de Waal, eds. 2000. Natural Conflict Resolution. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
- de Waal, Frans B. M. 2000. Primates--A natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science 289: 586-590.
- Hicks, Donna. 2011. Dignity: The Essential Role It Plays in Resolving Conflict. Yale University Press
- Silk, Joan B (2002). "The form and function of reconciliation in primates". Annual Review of Anthropology. 31: 21-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.032902.101743.
- Weaver, Ann; de Waal, Frans B. M. (2003). "The mother-offspring relationship as a template in social development: reconciliation in captive brown capuchins (Cebus apella)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 117: 101-110. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.117.1.101.
- Palagi, Elisabetta; et al. (2004). "Reconciliation and consolation in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus)". American Journal of Primatology. 62: 15-30. doi:10.1002/ajp.20000. PMID 14752810.
- Palagi, Elisabetta; et al. (2005). "Aggression and reconciliation in two captive groups of Lemur catta". International Journal of Primatology. 26: 279-294. doi:10.1007/s10764-005-2925-x.
- Lorenzen, Michael. 2006. Conflict Resolution and Academic Library Instruction. LOEX Quarterly 33, no. 1/2: 6-9, 11.
- Winslade, John & Monk, Gerald. 2000. Narrative Mediation: A New Approach to Conflict Resolution. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
- Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov (Ed.) (2004). From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation. Oxford University Press
- Tesler, Pauline. 2001, 2008. Collaborative Law: Achieving Effective Resolution in Divorce without Litigation (American Bar Association).
- Tesler, Pauline and Thompson, Peggy. 2006. Collaborative Divorce: The Revolutionary New Way to Restructure Your Family, Resolve Legal Issues, and Move On with Your Life (Harper Collins).
- Kellett, Peter M. (2007). Conflict Dialogue. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 1-4129-0930-9.
Further reading
- Peter T. Coleman (2011). The Five Percent: Finding Solutions to Seemingly Impossible Conflicts. ISBN 978-1-58648-921-2.
- Caraccilo, Dominic J. "Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy", Santa Barbara, California: PSI, 2011. ISBN 978-0-313-39149-1.
- Michal Alberstein, Amy Cohen, Hanan Mandel, Orna Rabinovitch-Eini, Jay Rothman, Amira Schiff and Ephraim Tabory, eds. (2013). International Journal of Conflict Engagement and Resolution. ISSN 2211-9965. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
- Shair-Rosenfield, Sarah; Wood, Reed M. (May 2017). "Governing well after war: how improving female representation prolongs post-conflict peace". The Journal of Politics. Chicago Journals. doi:10.1086/691056.
External links
- School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution at George Mason University
- TruceWorks.com a non-profit conflict resolution service
- Intelligent Power and Conflict Resolution Lecture at Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab, the Quaid-é-Azam Campus, Lahore
- Employee conflict resolution at DMOZ
- Party-Directed Mediation: Helping Others Resolve Differences by Gregorio Billikopf. Free book PDF download, at the University of California
- Party-Directed Mediation: Facilitating Dialogue Between Individuals by Gregorio Billikopf, free complete book download, from Internet Archive (3rd Edition, multiple file formats including PDF, EPUB, and others)
- Conflict Resolution training at Michigan State University
- Search for Common Ground
- Beyond Intractability
- CR Info The Conflict Resolution Information Source
- The Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy
- Peace Education Foundation
- Intelligent Power, Conflict Resolution, Complexity and International Trade Lecture at Institute of Business Administration, City Campus, Karachi
- Conflict Management Articles - A collection of Conflict Management Articles
- Archival audio of a panel on storytelling, peace, and conflict resolution
- Conflict Gateway a collection of free conflict resolution articles and training materials.
- Comisión Nacional de Acceso a Justicia Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación Argentina.
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